Bucket Baby vs the Climber free essay sample

The reason the trees make them chipper. As the owner of a small tree service I have had to evaluate whether or not to purchase an aerial lift bucket truck to assist in the tree trimming and removal process or to stick to old methods such as climbing. Most people have fond memories of climbing trees as young children. â€Å"Learning to safely climb a tree is a lot more involved than simply spying some sturdy looking branches that seem like they could hold your weight as you scramble to the top. (Toothman) However, professionally climbing a tree to trim or remove branches can be a truly frightening experience that can be physically exhausting. On the other hand operating an aerial lift may be frightening, However , not physically exhausting. The utilization of an aerial lift will increase productivity by decreasing climber involvement and increasing company morale. An ancient proverb states Many hands make light work. We will write a custom essay sample on Bucket Baby vs the Climber or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page (Ammer) In life this holds true, but in practicality it is not always the most efficient method. By purchasing an aerial lift and using it in my day to day tree trimming and tree removal operations, I could do the work of ten climbers using one hundred ropes in half the time. Sure, my cost of operation would increase, but with great risk comes great rewards. As I stated before my ability to complete the work would increase substantially resulting in a higher profit margin. If I were to scale a tree ranging in heights of one hundred feet plus, I would have to complete a variety of steps. First I would have to assemble all my gear. Then attach all my utensils to my climbing saddle, before climbing the tree. Next set a work line in a desired location to cut off limbs. After this I must determine mass load of branches that I will be cutting off. Then I must evaluate hinge points and branch swinging clearance. There is a lengthy process to climbing trees professionally. If I were to work on the same tree using an aerial lift, I would drive up to it with the bucket,set up the lift in an appropriate location to access the tree effectively, jump in the bucket, oom up to the top with my chainsaw and ropes, calculate swing distance, hinge points, mass load, and begin cutting. The theory is primarily the same but the method is different, By utilizing both crafts of climbing and the bucket, the overall efficiency of the operations will increase. The next important piece to examine is how involved a human being must be in the tree service industry. Imagine a tree climber working for a tree removal service, climbing a tree about ninety feet in the air thirty feet out on a branch. Being asked to cut off the end of that branch while hanging from the side holding a power chainsaw. Also this branch is located over a house. The branch is only attached to a rope, when it falls the violent up and down movement occurs with the worker still dangling. By separating the climber from the tree and putting that climber in an aerial lift it lessens the danger presented to the climber in the overall trimming and removal process. It could be argued that by separating the climber from the tree the overall quality of the tree work may decline. However, this issue could be resolved simply by awareness. By structuring company meetings to address issues before they arise, one can take control of the probability of an outcome. There are a variety of incentives that one can implement to raise company moral. Rewarding an employee with a fair wage for a hard job it makes them feel respected; by rewarding an employee with a piece of equipment that makes a hard job easier at the same hourly wage in turn makes them feel cared about. The purchase of a bucket truck would accomplish company goals, and move away from â€Å"the one-guy-and-truck sort of business that dominate the industry†. mastrull) By decreasing climber involvement while increasing overall efficiency and profit margins,the company will gain success resulting in higher wages and better benefits for employees. As the company grows more successful its ability to insure the well being of its team members. As a result the employee gains a greater sense of accomplishment and pride in their work. When a person likes what they are doing, they can do it all day long with a smile on their faces. When everything runs smoothly and everyone is happy the overall company morale will be boosted. Again resulting in increased productivity, efficiency and quality of work. Owning a small company is a daunting venture, I am constantly making sacrifices and devoting most of my attention the business. In all my analyzing and reflection it stands to reason that the purchase of an aerial lift bucket truck for my company would be a wise investment that would pay for itself within a short time frame. The utilization of an aerial lift in the tree trimming and removing process will increase productivity by decreasing climber involvement and increasing company morale.

History and Culture of Jamaica Essays

History and Culture of Jamaica Essays History and Culture of Jamaica Essay History and Culture of Jamaica Essay disease and war the aboriginal people were exterminated in about two hundred years . The Spanish conquistadors had no interest in converting the natives to Christianity ,like they did with the Aztecs or the Mayans in south America, so they literally worked the Tainos to death. Bit by bit they were replaced by African slaves from which the modern black population descends from. The Spanish rule lasted until 1655 ,when the English seized the island after many years of pirate attacks, even though they where recognized as rulers of the island only in 1670 through the Treaty of Madrid. Slavery was abolished by the English only in 1834 after hundreds of thousands slaves died on the sugar cane plantations. Jamaiaca remained an English posesion until 1962 when independence but remained part of the English Commonwealth. I find Jamaica interesting not only for it’s history but especially for it’s culture. Jamaican culture, at least its music, has , over the years sprung different music genres ,music trends and artists. Jamaica is the birthplace of genres like ska , dub and reggae and in recent years dancehall or jungle. Not even the English language remained unchanged in Jamaica , most of the population speak Patwah or Patois, which is a mixture between American English, British English ,French and African dialects. Adapting the English language gave birth to a new dialect that has transformed a sentence like: †The children are making to much noise† into â€Å"Di pickney, dem a mek too much nize† or â€Å"Those boys are hungry, you should give them something to eat† into â€Å"Den de bwoy dem belly a yawn,yu a fi gi dem sintin fi heat†. Jamaicans have their own take on Christianity, the island being the birthplace of a philosophical and religious movement called Rastafarianism, a religious cult that accepts the former emperor of Ethiopia, Haile Selassie I as God incarnate, to whom they refer as Jah. One f the most visited islands in the Caribbean Jamaica isn’t just sun, sand and palm tries ,it’s people, it’s culture and it’s history have something special to offer to anyone who’s interested in human cultures, human habits and beliefs. Jamaica’s motto: †Out of many, one people† speeks greatily about the cultura l and racial diversity of the island, who over the years come to incorporate all the different customs of it’s inhabitants in to the national culture heritage. These next pages will show that, from a cultural point of view, Jamaica is one of the richest countries in the world. Early history Jamaica’s ancient history is one of tribal colonization from south America from where different tribes arrived on canoes between 5000 BC and 900. The first people to colonize Jamaica were the Guanahatabey, a tribe of Amerindians who arrived on the island somewhere between 5000 B. C. and 4000 B. C and came from the Yucatan Peninsula. They were cave dwelling people,who used basic tools for fishing and gathering. They were peaceful people who lived in very small groups, without interacting with the outside world. Not very much is known about them and their culture, due to their primitive social and intellectual status. The next wave of Amerindian tribes who came on the island, were the Saladoid or Igneris that arrived in 300 A. D. They came from the Orinoco region in Venezuela and were the first Arawakans to arrive in Jamaica. They, unlike the Guanahatabey had a form of social organization and had a skill in fine ceramics. DUJO But the most influential of the south American tribes who inhabited at one moment the island were the Tainos. Tainos were also Arawakans who came in two different waves on the island, first in 650 A. D. and then in 900 A. D. The Tainos didn’t colonize only Jamaica, they controlled all the islands in the Greater Antilles, the Lesser Antilles and the Bahamas. They named the island Xaymaca, meaning the land of springs and water, from which the modern names derives. In a few years they absorbed the Saladoids and their culture, making them slaves and denying them of Tainos luxuries such as hammocks and cassava (manioc). Tainos lived in villages called â€Å"yucayeque† in the center of which existed a plaza were ceremonies and other social events took place. Most of the population lived in large circular buildins called â€Å"bohio†, made from wooden poles and palm leaves. They were constructed near the town plaza and could house 10 to 15 families. The town chief or â€Å"cacique† and his family would live in rectangular buildings called â€Å"caney†. In every Taino home there were cotton hammocks, mats made from palms, wooden chairs (dujo) and cradles for children. BATEY COURT Tainos played â€Å"batey†, a ceremonial game very similar to modern volleyball, in which two teams of ten to thirty men or women had to score points for their village, as the game was played for the resolve of problems between different communities. The game was played in the village plaza or on specially designed ball courts. Taino society was composed of two social groups: â€Å"naborias†, who were the Saladoid slaves and â€Å"nitainos†, the Taino nobility. They were governed by the â€Å"caciques†, who were either males or females, and had supreme power. They were advised by priests/healers called â€Å"bohiques†, who could talk to the Taino gods. Taino were mainly farmers, growing cassava, â€Å"batata† (sweet potato) and tobacco, but they would also eat fish, lizards, turtles or birds. They were master carvers and didn’t wear clothes except for a small apron worn by married women. From a religious point of view, life was very complex, as Taino believed in â€Å"zemis† or â€Å"cemis†(gods and spirits). The two supreme gods in Taino culture were: Yucahu(spirit of the cassava) the god of cassava and sea and Atabey(Yucahu’s mother), who was the goddess of fresh water and fertility. Other gods include: Boinayel and his twin brother Marohu who are the gods of rain and weather respectively, Guabancex the goddess of storms and Deminan Caracaracol a male hero from whom the Tainos believed to have descended from. Before special ceremonies Tainos used to induce vomiting by swallowing a stick or by fasting and sniff a hallucinogenic powder called â€Å"cohoba† prepared from beans. TAINO DOLL Also they used to pierce their ears and noses as sacrifice for the gods. Technologically wise Tainos would make fish nets and ropes from hemp and cotton, canoes (that could carry up to 150 people) from palm trees and as a weapon they would use the â€Å"macana† a wooden club one inch thick. The â€Å"macana† came in use when a warrior tribe from south America , the Caribs, tried to seize the island on several occasions . Ironically, the thing that stop them was the arrival of the Spanish on the island. Columbus found out about Jamaica from the Tainos in Cuba, but he failed to land on the island on his first attempt as 40 war canoes repelled him and his vessels. Non the less the conquistadors eventually landed on the island at Cow’s Bay, as they named it , where they were greeted , to their surprise, by a cacique and his followers. It is said that after seeing the cacique and the warriors with him who were dressed in bright feathered cloaks and head dressed with ornaments, made of semiprecious stones, around their necks and foreheads, and faces painted with different colours, Columbus said that the cacique he encountered in Jamaica was â€Å"the most intelligent and civilized leader in the New World†. This initial respect for each others culture did not last, as the Spanish, as they did elsewhere, killed al the caciques and turned the rest of the native population in to slaves. Not only slavery caused the wipe-out of the Taino population in Jamaica, but also European diseases like smallpox or the plague, who hit the island in 1520. It is even said that Tainos were killed for training by the Spanish soldiers on the island. All these things combined, plus a massive wave of suicides wiped clean the island of it’s natives. So at the moment of the British takeover there was virtually no Tainos left on the island, although in 1598 the Governor of Jamaica Fernando Melgarejo made an attempt to save the few Tainos left, by putting them in a reservation but the colonists refused as they would have no more slaves to work the land. Much of the records that survived about this interesting civilization is written by Spanish explorers as the Tainos had no written language. Tainos and their legacy are present even in the English language, in which we can find words of Taino descent: barbacoa (barbecue), hammaca(hammock), canoa(canoe), tabaco(tobacco), yuca(yucca), and huracan(hurricane). British takeover It was not until 1655, however, that the Spanish were driven from the island by Admiral William Penn and General Robert Venables. The Spanish were forced to flee the island but not before freeing the slaves who took to the hills where they remained a constant thorn in the side of the English. In an effort to settle the island Oliver Cromwell issued his famous proclamation, which granted land to British citizens who were willing to settle on the island. In 1656 approximately 1,600 immigrants arrived and settled around Port Morant. Although the Spaniards were driven out they never gave up hope of recapturing the island of Jamaica and in 1658 another Spanish force landed but was defeated at the decisive battle at Rio Nuevo. The island began to prosper under the rule of the British. Great wealth was brought to the island by the buccaneers, who operated mainly from Port Royal, by plundering Spanish ships which transported gold and silver from South America. By the late Seventeenth Century, Port Royal had earned the reputation of being the richest and the wickedest city in the world. In 1692 this town suffered destruction by an earthquake in which more than half of the town sank beneath the sea. This signaled the end of piracy in the West Indies. The second half of the Seventeenth Century saw the beginning of the sugar revolution. Large parcels of land were planted in sugar cane. The whole process of making sugar required a huge labour force. The English planters sought various groups to provide the much needed labour. African slavery was not new to the West Indies and had been introduced by the Spanish and the Portuguese. Later, the Dutch supplied slaves from Africa, and they taught the English the techniques necessary for the production of sugar. The Africans brought in were from many tribes, although the majority were Coromantees from the Gold Coast, Eboes from the Bight of Benin and Mandingoes. The Coromantees are described as being a strong, brave, proud and fierce race. Most of the slave revolts in Jamaica were led by Coromantee slaves. The slaves were divided into two main groups, the field slaves and the domestic/house slaves. In the case of the former they were further divided into skilled workers such as carpenters, coopers, drivers, masons, blacksmiths, and unskilled workers, that is, those who worked in the field. Punishment was a regular part of estate life and ranged from lashings, to maiming and ultimately death. There was resistance to slavery by slaves, both passive and active. Examples of passive resistance included poisoning of masters, destruction of property, and infanticide. In the case of active resistance, there were open rebellions, and many slaves ran away and joined forces with the slaves who were set free by the Spanish or who had fled to the interior hills of the island. They were later called Maroons. In 1735 1739 they fought against the British in what was called the First Maroon War. Although Jamaicas sugar industry continued to grow and provide England with great wealth it was not without its problems. For instance, wars throughout the Eighteenth Century, caused a reduction in trade between the colonies and Great Britain. The lack of supplies affected the health of the slaves, and ultimately lowered the production of sugar. The abolition of the slave trade in 1807, marked the beginning of the end of slavery and the economic power of the Jamaican planters. By 1813, the wealth of the West Indian planters could no longer muffle the cries of the abolitionists and humanitarians to free the slaves. Consequently, in 1833 slavery was abolished in the British West Indies and a system of apprenticeship was adopted. The objective of the apprenticeship system was to help the slaves adjust to their free status and to supply the planters with a source of constant labour until they could adjust to full wage labour. HOUSE OF CORRECTION The abuses of the system brought about a premature end to slavery and in 1838 full freedom was given. Although taken from their country of origin the slaves retained some aspects of their culture. In the case of their language some African words, such as nyam, duckunnoo, patoo, and language patterns which include the repetition of a word, as in the case of chaka chaka meaning chaotic, and little little meaning very small, were retained. The abolition of slavery saw a rise in the construction of Free Villages, and growth in peasant farming. There was also an increase in the membership of Nonconformist Churches and a system of education for the free blacks was introduced. In addition, the planters fear of mass migration of ex-slaves from the plantation saw the introduction of other racial groups to replace slave labour. Groups brought in included Europeans (Germans, Scots and Portuguese), Free Africans, Chinese and East Indians. Although many things had changed, social conditions remained more or less the same for blacks. By the 1860s the situation had worsened and gave rise to what was later called, the Morant Bay Rebellion. The Morant Bay Rebellion brought about some changes in Jamaica, firstly, the system of Government changed from Representative to Crown Colony (or direct Crown rule), secondly, the Anglican Church was disestablished, thirdly, the Institute of Jamaica was founded to encourage literature, science and art. By 1872 the capital was transferred from Spanish Town to Kingston. There was an improvement in the water supply and a number of schools were established. There was a shift from sugar to banana production. The Great War (1914 1918) gave many Jamaicans the opportunity to travel which in turn helped to shape their views of the system of Government. In addition, during the early Twentieth Century, many Jamaicans left in search of employment in the Panama Canal Zone, and in Costa Rica, Cuba and Honduras to work on the plantations. The movement of people brought about a change in ideas by the 1920s. Marcus Mosiah Garvey, who promoted unity among blacks and pride in their race, became a prominent figure during this period. Port Royal-pirate capital Jamaica, and especially its former capital Port Royal were the launch base for almost all pirate and buccaneer efforts in the Caribbean. From the â€Å"wickedest city on earth† to a thriving commercial centre of the New World, Port Royal, Jamaica, has been the subject of much popular interest. While the image of a decadent and lavish city bears some truth, it obscures a more complex history of English colonization and the African slave trade, of skilled craftsmen as well as crafty men, , of urban devastation and preservation- all of which is part of the story of a town whose sleepy present hides its past of excitement and intrigue. Soon after their arrival in Jamaica in 1655, the English began a defence of Port Royal against recapture by the Spanish. To protect the harbour, they hastily erected Fort Cromwell, which was renamed Fort Charles following the crowning of Charles II in 1660. By the time of the earthquake in 1692, an impressive array of forts and stone lines encircled Port Royal, making it one of the most heavily defended cities in the Caribbean. In the years immediately following the English conquest, Jamaica remained vulnerable to Spanish attacks. Thus, Governor Edward D’Oyley enticed buccaneers, who were already preying on ships in the region, to occupy Port Royal and provide the city with maritime protection. Since the English government officially commissioned these pirates, they were known as ‘privateers’. The most infamous of them, Henry Morgan, was commissioned in 1668 and carried out several spectacular raids against Spanish fleets and ports. Though the Treaty of Madrid between England and Spain in 1670 abolished privateering, the practice continued. After being appointed the lieutenant-governor of Jamaica in 1674, Sir Henry Morgan apparently both suppressed and encouraged privateers. During the 1660s and 1670s, the privateers brought tremendous wealth into Port Royal in the form of Spanish silver, gold and precious stones. This wealth, in turn, allowed the residents of the city to carry out a flourishing trade in European staples and luxury goods- such as wines, sweet meats, refined clothing and jewellery, and to import porcelain from China and ivory from Africa. By 1692 Port Royal had an estimated population of 6,500, of whom perhaps 2,500 were enslaved Africans. Many of the white residents of the city were indentured servants. Though a portion of the population lived in great luxury, most survived under much more humble circumstances. In 1680 there were approximately 1,000 houses in Port Royal, built in a manner that resembled an English town. Large houses were often multi-story brick structures with four-room floor plans. Ground floor rooms that fronted the street were sometimes used for shops or offices. In their private chambers, ladies fussed and tidyed up themselves, received guests and wrote letters. A man’s bedchamber, on the other hand, doubled as his office or study(a place to secure money, weapons and books). The splendour of the finest homes was comparable to that of London. Official events were grand displays of the King’s authority with parades and the changing of fort guards to fife and drum bands. While there were lavish balls and banquets, much of Port Royal’s social life revolved around the numerous taverns and included the usual drinking, brawls, smoking, eating and even sleeping. Other activities, considered inappropriate contributed to the city’s reputation for decadence and wickedness. Though freewheeling, Port Royal was certainly not all wicked. According to observer John Taylor: â€Å"they allow of a free toleration of all religions†. Indeed, there were Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, Quakers and Jews, along with the Anglican congregations of Christchurch and Saint Paul’s. It was about 11:42 am on Wednesday, June 7, 1692. The residents of Port Royal were retiring home, or to a tavern, for a drink and their meals when a roar came from the hills across the harbour. Shockwaves had the land suddenly â€Å"rowling and moving† and, within minutes, three tremors tore through the ground. The sea swept in from all sides. The earthquake had struck. An anonymous eyewitness stated: â€Å"The sand in the street rose like the waves of the sea, lifting up all persons that stood upon it, and immediately dropping down into pits; and at the same instant a flood of water rushed in, throwing down all who were in its way; some were seen catching hold of beams and rafters of houses, others were found in the sand that appeared when the water was drained away, with their legs and arms out†. By the end, only 25 of Port Royal’s original 60 acres remained and 2. 00 people were killed instantly. One Port Royal resident, a Frenchman named Lewis Galdy, was swallowed up by the earth and subsequently spewed out alive. Most, however, did not have his good fortune. To many, the calamity was a sign of God’s wrath, His retribution upon this â€Å"Sodom of the Indies† with its hosts of reckless pirates, prostituates and moneylenders. Following the earthquake, survivors established Kingston across the harbour but did not abandon Port Royal. The community rebuilt itself, though it continued to be devastated by fires, hurricanes and earthquakes. In 1951 Hurricane Charlie wiped out Port Royal, leaving only a few of its wooden buildings standing. The old Naval Hospital, which remained intact, provided a safe home for almost the entire population. Once again, the citizens of Port Royal rebuilt their town. Surviving buildings of the naval station served as a police academy and small military base and, at present, provide a headquarters for the Jamaica Coast Guard. Today, Port Royal’s ruins from the 1692 earthquake appear as ghostly silhouettes at the bottom of the shallow waters surrounding the existing town. Since the 1950s, countless artefacts have been recovered through underwater archaeological excavations, though less than 10% of the catastrophic site has been surveyed to date. Whether crushed, mangled or shattered, these artefacts are evidence of the history of a town that has seen many defeats as well as numerous attempts at rebirth. In 1999 the Jamaica National Heritage Trust designated Port Royal a National Heritage Site. The underwater city is undeniably one the world’s archaeological wonders. Jamaican culture 1. Religion The Rastafari movevement or Rastafarianism is a â€Å"messianic religio-political movement† that began in the Jamaican slums in the 1920’s and 1930’s . The most famous Rastafari is Bob Marley, whose reggae music gained the Jamaican movement international recognition. There is significant variation within the Rastafari movement and no formal organization. Some Rastafarians see Rasta more as a way of life than a religion. But uniting the diverse movement is belief in the divinity and/or messiahship of Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie I, the influence of Jamaican culture, resistance of oppression, and pride in African heritage. The Rastafarian lifestyle usually includes ritual use of marijuana, avoidance of alcohol, the wearing of hair in dreadlocks, and vegetarianism. Followers of the Rastafari movement are known as Rastafarians, Rastafaris, Rastas, or Ras Tafarians. The movement is named or Ras Tafari Makonnen, who was crowned Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia in 1930. Rastafari developed in the slums of Kingston, Jamaica, in the 1920s and 30s. In an environment of great poverty, depression, racism and class discrimination, the Rasta message of black pride, freedom from oppression, and the hope of return to the African homeland was gratefully r eceived. The Rastafarian movement began with the teachings of Marcus Garvey (1887-1940), a black Jamaican who led a â€Å"Back to Africa† movement. He taught that Africans are the true Israelites and have been exiled to Jamaica and other parts of the world as divine punishment. Garvey is regarded as a second John the Baptist and famously prophesied in 1927, â€Å"Look to Africa, for there a king shall be crowned. †On November 2, 1930, Ras Tafari Makonnen was crowned emperor of Ethiopia (he ruled until 1974). At his coronation he took the name Haile Selassie, meaning â€Å"Might of the Trinity. † Followers of Garveys teachings believed that Selassie is the messiah that had been predicted, and that his coronation indicated the divine punishment was completed and the return to Africa would begin. Rastafarians named their movement for Ras Tafari and regarded the emperor as the physical presence of God (Jah) on earth. Haile Selassie was an Ethiopian Orthodox Christian who denied his divine status as proclaimed in Jamaica. In a radio interview with Canadas CBC news in 1967, he said, â€Å"I have heard of that idea â€Å"that I am divine†. I also met certain Rastafarians. I told them clearly that I am a man, that I am mortal, and that I will be replaced by the oncoming generation, and that they should never make a mistake in assuming or pretending that a human being is emanated from a deity. This denial didn’t stop Rastafarians from believing the emperor to be divine. The sacred text of Rastafarians is the Holy Piby, the â€Å"Black Mans Bible. † It was written by Robert Athlyi Rogers of Anguilla from 1913 to 1917 and published in 1924. The Holy Piby is a version of the Christian Bible that has been altered to remove all the deliberate distortions that are b elieved to have been made by white leaders during its translation into English. Rastafarians do not believe in an afterlife but instead look to Africa (called â€Å"Zion†) as a heaven on earth. True Rastas are believed to be immortal, both physically and spiritually, a concept called â€Å"everliving†. Another central concept is Babylon, which refers to the white power structure of Europe and the Americas. Rastas seek to resist Babylon, which once cruelly enslaved blacks and still continue to hold them down through poverty, illiteracy, inequality, and trickery. The greed and wickedness of Babylon is contrasted with the simplicity and naturalness of the Rastas. Rastafarians are perhaps best known for their religious use of marijuana, which grows plentifully in Jamaica. Rastas know it as ganja, the holy herb, Iley or callie, and believed was given by God. Scriptural support is found especially in Psalm 104:14: â€Å"He causeth the grass for the cattle and herb for the service of man. † Other texts interpreted to refer to cannabis include Genesis 3:18, Exodus 10:12, and Proverbs 15:17. In addition to ritual use, Rastas also use marijuana for medicinal purposes , applying it to a variety of diseases including colds. Marijuana is used mainly during the two main Rastafari rituals: reasonings and nyabinghi. The reasoning is an informal gathering at which a small group of Rastas smoke ganja and engage in discussion. The ritual begins when one person lights the pipe, or chalice, and recites a short prayer while all other participants bow their heads. The pipe is then passed around the circle until all of the people have smoked. The reasoning ends when the participants depart one by one. The nyabinghi, or binghi for short, is a dance held on Rasta holidays and special occasions. These dances can last for several days and bring together hundreds of Rastafarians from all over Jamaica. They camp in tents on land owned by the host Rastas. Formal dancing takes place at night in a hut especially set up for the occasion. The Rastas sing and dance until the early hours of the morning. In the daytime, they â€Å"rest and reason†. There are several Rasta holidays, most of which center around events in the life of Emperor Haile Selassie. The most important celebrations are: November 2 the coronation of Selassie January 6 ceremonial birthday of Selassie April 21 Selassies visit to Jamaica July 23 Selassies personal birthday August 1 emancipation from slavery August 17 Marcus Garveys birthday One of the most visible practices of Rastafarians is the wearing of hair in dreadlocks. Dreadlocks have several purposes and layers of meaning for Rastafarians, including: the biblical command not to cut ones hair (Leviticus 21:5) the appearance of the lions mane, representing strength, Africa, Ethiopia, and the Lion of Judah naturalness and simplicity, which are associated with Africa The other main Rasta symbol besides dreadlocks, are the colors of red, gold and green. Red stands for the triumphant church of the Rastas as well as the blood of the martyrs in the black struggle for liberation. Gold represents the wealth of their African homeland and green symbolizes Ethiopias beauty and lush vegetation. Black is often also included, representing the color of the Africans. Another important symbol is the Lion of Judah, which represents Haile Selassie as the King of Kings, Africa, and strength. The most dedicated Rastas follow a dietary law called Ital. Ital food is food which is completely natural (not canned and free of chemicals and preservatives) and eaten as raw as possible. Old Testament prohibitions against pork and shellfish are part of Ital; most Rastafarians are vegetarians or vegans. Coffee and milk are also rejected as unnatural. Rastafarians reject the use of alcohol, since it is a fermented chemical that does not belong in the temple of the body and it makes a person stupid, thereby playing into the hands of white leaders. This is contrasted with the holy herb of marijuana, which is natural and believed by Rastas to open their mind and assist in reasoning. There are between 3,000 and 5,000 Rastafarians in the United States. However, these figures may be slightly distorted as a result of the large number of people who have adopted the external appearance of Rastafarians. Worldwide, the total following is approximately 1,000,000 people. 2. Arts and Literature Jamaica is well-known for its music, which is central to Jamaican life and has had a world-wide impact. Church services feature gospel choirs, and singers of the genre have risen to fame. Ska music developed in the early 1960s. Rock Steady, a slower, more soulful rhythm with a heavy bass beat, was next on the music scene, but it was quickly eclipsed by reggae. Originating in the Kingston ghetto in the early 1970s, reggae rose to dominate the international music scene under the leadership of Bob Marley, its undisputed king. Reggae style blends Afro-American rhythms with modern instruments and often caustic political and social commentary. Jamaican music is still producing new innovations and is a major influence in dance clubs around the world. Jamaican literature includes poetry, folklore, novels, short stories and essays. Much of the islands literary movement appeared after independence in 1962. The most famous Jamaican writer, poet Claude McKay, is credited with having inspired the Negritude (â€Å"Blackness†) movement in France and was a part of the Harlem Renaissance in the United States, where he emigrated at the age of 22. Before moving to America, he had established himself as a poet in Jamaica. McKay is known for his style, which, though classical, expressed uniquely Jamaican ideas in his earliest works. His later works helped to inspire some of the most important writers of the Harlem Renaissance and is placed alongside Langston Hughes as a founder of the movement. His works are well respected throughout the Western World. An annual literary festival includes competitions in writing poetry, short stories and essays. Numerous Jamaican writers, including Velma Pollard, author of â€Å"Karl and other Stories† (1993) and the poet Kwame Dawes, author of â€Å" Progeny of Air† (1994) have won international awards. Jamaicas own literature has grown out of this storytelling tradition, capturing a unique blend of spoken and written forms. In fact, the islands natural speech is one of the most important elements in many of its writers’ novels and stories. Others use language to capture the musical rhythm of the island, with its unusual beats. This can play an important role in defining the islands literary character. The 1970s saw the arrival of dub poetry, a new genre in which poems are often set to heavy reggae bass and drums. Jamaican visual art has a long and powerful tradition. The most common themes are slavery, nationalism, spirituality and the family. Jamaica has internationally known sculptors and painters, as well as a tradition of wood carvers who sell their folk art along Jamaicas highways. Edna Manley is a well-known sculptor. Barrington Watson is also an artist who received wide acclaim. Jamaican theatrical artists put on performances throughout the country. The best known of these stage productions are the Little Theatre Movements pantomimes, which are often based on the character of Anancy. The National Dance Theatre Company, a company of creative dancers, musicians and singers, has won wide acclaim in Jamaica and internationally for decades. The female troupe Sistern has won international acclaim performing plays and skits on womens issues. 3. Music THE BIRTH OF SKA Like mento before it, ska was born out of a combining musical elements. Both mento and jazz were combined to produce a new style that was initially called Shuffle Popular shuffle hits were recorded by Neville Esson, Owen Grey and the Overtakers. The newly set up recording studios were always on the look out for the next new sound. With the popularity of American RB artists like Fats Domino and Louis Jordan many Jamaican performers incorporated the 12 bar blues chord progressions and boogie bass lines with mento guitar rhythms. Increasing emphasis was placed on the offbeat rhythms of mento. The offbeats became shorter and more detached. These distinct syncopated rhythms were sounded on guitar and piano. The new style of music became known as ska. The first person to record this ska rhythm was Ernest Ranglin when performing with Cluet Johnson (Clue J. ) and the Blues Busters. Clue J was well known for greeting his friends with a call of Love Skavoovie. Many believe the name of ska is a shortened form of this greeting. Ska quickly became the most dominant form of music in Jamaica. Its success coincided with the independence and the departure of the English in 1962. There was a new attitude towards indigenous music. Ska was already enormously popular in Jamaica and music producers attempted to export it to the rest of the world, a move that was supported by the government. It was the national music of Jamaica and was demonstrated to the the world at the 1964 Worlds Fair in New York. The Jamaican big names included Byron Lee and the Dragonaires, Jimmy Cliff , Prince Buster and dancers Ronnie Nasralla and Jannette Phillips who taught the world the moves for the Backy Skank, the Rootsman Skank and the Ska. Early ska dance movements and some lyrics were influenced by the religious revival era. Songs such as Wings of a Dove performed by both The Blues Busters and The Wailers, Oil in My Lamp by Eric Morris and King of Kings by Jimmy Cliff are revival tunes with lyrics that are sped up. Israelites by Desmond Dekker also features revival characteristics in the lyrics. Other ska lyrics were pop orientated and feature very little Jamaican patois. These songs were either nonsense lyrics such as Eric Morris†Humpty Dumpty† and â€Å"Solomon Gundi† or romantic such as Delroy Wilsons â€Å"Dancing Mood†, which was one of the first songs to bridge the gap between ska and its slower successor Rocksteady (more later). In contrast are the political ska lyrics that reflected the social concerns of rude boys. RUDE BOYS These were the primary listeners to ska in Jamaica. They were rebellious out of work and reacted against poverty and injustice. They emulated Hollywood gangster fashions by wearing black suits, thin ties and pork pie hats, the type of look that is still seen today in Taritino’s movies â€Å"Reservoir Dogs† and â€Å"Pulp Fiction†. Rude Boys often lived outside of the law and were also sometimes called â€Å"Scofflaws† (people who hate the law). Ska lyrics at the time reflected the life and times of Rude Boys. Some examples include The Soul Brothers â€Å"Lawless Street†, The Heptones â€Å"Gunmen Comin to Town†, Desmond Dekkers â€Å"007 Shanty Town†, Dandy Livingstones â€Å"A Message to You Rudi† and Prince Busters â€Å"Judge Dread† who handed out 400 year sentences to Rude Boys. Clement Dodd backed a young group who envisioned themselves as rudies The Wailers -Bob Marley, Bunny Livingstone (Wailer) and Peter Macintosh (later shortened to Tosh). The way rude boys danced to the music also influenced the ska sound. They rhythmically pumped their arms back and forward and adopted a more menacing posture than the traditional style demonstrated by Ronnie and Jannette. As a result the music became more menacing. Bass lines became more syncopated rejecting the easy going walking boogie style. ROCKSTEADY TO REGGAE By 1966 in Jamaica many audiences had grown tired of the insistent ska beat and tempo. Around 1966 the beat of ska was slowed and rocksteady was born. Some say that it was a particularly hot Jamaican summer that led to this more relaxed style but the real reason for this change can be traced once again to the continuing influence of American RB. By the mid 60s R was developing into the smoother soul styles of Motown, Memphis and Philadelphia soul. Jamaican musicians responded to this with their own slower smoother styles. The most notable hit of the rocksteady era was â€Å"The Tide is High† by The Paragons. In the 80s this was covered by Blondie and was one of their biggest hits. The influence of another religious revival, Rastafarianism led to further musical developments of ska and rocksteady and reggae was born. The BIRTH OF BRITISH SKA Ska went to England with the immigrants of the early 1960s and was initially known as Bluebeat. The first international ska hit was â€Å"My Boy Lollipop† by Millie Small. It was recorded in England in 1964 for Island Records and featured a young English Rod Stewart, just beginning his own music career on Harmonica. Ska gained popularity amongst the Mod scene and several hits followed including â€Å"Guns of Navarone† by the Skatalites, â€Å"Carry Go Bring Come† by Justin and The Dominoes, and â€Å"Rudy, A Message to You† by Dandy Livingstone. In 1969,†The Israelites† by Desmond Dekker became the first Jamaican produced recording to become a number one hit in Britain. Other big ska chart hits in 1969 included â€Å"Monkey Man† by Toots and the Maytals, â€Å"Long Shot Kick De Bucket† by The Pioneers and â€Å"Liquidator† by The Harry J Allstars. It is interesting to know that these hits had all been recorded several years earlier in Jamaica and gradually climbed the tops into the UK charts over a long period of time. TWO TONE In 1979 ska enjoyed a revival of popularity. Initially the ska revival was an English phenomenon, but gradually spread to the rest of the world, including Australia. The most notable bands associated with the second wave of ska popularity were The Specials, Madness, The Beat, and The Selecter. All these bands recorded their first albums for â€Å"Two Tone Records†, a label established by The Specials keyboard player Jerry Dammers. The label was named after the two tone tonic suits worn by the original ska stars of the 1960s and also reflected the multi racial membership of the bands signed to the label. The trade mark of the company was based on a negative photo of Peter Tosh from an early Wailing Wailers album cover. This â€Å"Rude Boy† logo became known as Walt Jabsco. The Two Tone artists relied heavily on the first wave ska stars attitudes and philosophy. The Specials took their name from the special one off recordings made for the early sound system operators in Jamaica and â€Å"Madness† are named after a Prince Buster song. REGGAE The word reggae appeared around 1960 in Jamaica to identify a â€Å"ragged† style of dance music, that still had its roots in New Orleans rhythm n blues. However, reggae soon acquired the lament-like style of chanting and emphasized the syncopated beat. It also made explicit the relationship with the underworld of the â€Å"Rastafarians†. Compared with rock music, reggae music basically inverted the role of bass and guitar: the former was the lead, the latter beat the typical hiccupping pattern. The paradox of reggae, of course, is that this music â€Å"unique to Jamaica is actually not Jamaican at all, having its foundations in the USA and Africa. An independent label, Island, distributed Jamaican records in the UK throughout the 1960’s, but reggae became popular in the UK only when Prince Busters â€Å"Al Capone† (1967) started a brief dance craze. Jamaican music was very much a ghetto phenomenon, associated with gang-style violence, but Jimmy Cliffs â€Å"Wonderful World Beautiful People†(1969) united reggae with the peace and love philosophy of the hippies, an association that would not die away. In the USA, Neil Diamonds â€Å"Red Red Wine† (1967) was the first reggae hit by a pop musician. Shortly afterwards, Johnny Nashs â€Å"Hold me tight† (1968) propelled reggae onto the charts. â€Å"Do the Reggay† (1968) by Toots (Hibbert) and The Maytals was the record that gave the music its name. Fredrick Toots Hibberts vocal style was actually closer to gospel, as proved by their other hits . A little noticed event would have far-reaching consequences: in 1967, the Jamaican disc-jockey Rudolph Ruddy Redwood had begun recording instrumental versions of reggae hits. The success of his dance club was entirely due to that idea. Duke Reid, who was now the owner of the Trojan label, was the first one to capitalize on the idea: he began releasing singles with two sides: the original song and, on the back, the instrumental remix. This phenomenon elevated the status of dozens of recording engineers. Reggae music was mainly popularized by Bob Marley first as the co-leader of the Wailers, the band that promoted the image of the urban guerrilla with â€Å"Rude Boy† (1966) and that cut the first album of reggae music, â€Å"Best of the Wailers†(1970); and later as the political and religious (rasta) guru of the movement, a status that would transform him into a star, particularly after his conversion to pop-soul melody with ballads such as †Stir it up† (1972),†I Shot the Sheriff†(1973) and â€Å" No woman No cry†(1974). DUB More and more studio engineers were re-mixing B-sides of reggae 45 RPM singles, dropping out the vocals and emphasizing the instrumental texture of the song. The purpose was to allow disc-jockeys to â€Å"toast† over the record. Engineers became more and more skilled at refining the instrumental textures, especially when they began to employ sophisticated studio devices. Eventually, â€Å"dub† became an art on its own. The first dub singles appeared in 1971, but the man generally credited with â€Å"inventing† the genre is Osbourne Ruddock, better known asking Tubby, a recording engineer who in 1970 had accidentally discovered the appeal of stripping a song of its vocal track, and who engineered the first dub record, Carl Pattersons â€Å"Psalm of Dub† (1971). When he got together with producer Lee Scratch Perry, â€Å"Blackboard Jungle† (1973) was born: the first stereo â€Å"dub† album. It was a revolution: the engineer and the producer had become more important than the composer. DUB STUDIO It also marked the terminal point of the â€Å"slowing down† of Jamaican music, a process that had led from ska to reggae to rock steady. Compared with the original, dub was like a slow-motion version. A collaboration with melodica player Augustus Pablo led to another important work,† King Tubby Meets Rockers Uptown† (1976). Lee â€Å"Scratch† Perry (Rainford Hugh Perry) was born in 1936 in Kendal, a small town in the rural parish of Hanover, in the northwest of Jamaica. Perry arrived in Kingston in the late 1950’s, and immediately tried to enter the music business. He started working for Coxsone Dodd as a â€Å"bouncer, spy, talent scout, uncredited songwriter and eventually performer†. Perry left Coxsones after a disagreement over payment, moving to a new label (Amalgamated) set up by Joel Gibson, where he recorded an early reggae hit called â€Å"People Funny Boy† (which was a verbal attack aimed at his previous employer Coxsone). Perry became well known as a producer and was instrumental in Bob Marley’s and the Wailers early success. He linked up with Marley and the Wailers in 1969, beginning a collaboration that resulted in â€Å"definitive versions of some of the Wailers strongest work†. Perry, through his work as an artist, producer and engineer, has been one of the main people responsible in shaping the sound of Jamaican music over time. â€Å"Scratch† Perry, who had produced for the Wailers, pretty much set the reference standard for generations to come with â€Å"Double Seven† (1974), the first reggae album that overdubbed synthesizers, â€Å"Revolution Dub† (1975) and †Super Ape† (1976), one of the genres masterpieces he last forty years. Dub will come to later influence almost every genre of music, being used by producers to create sequential tracks in: hip-hop, pop, breakbeat, drum bass and other electronic linked genres. Conclusion One of the smallest countries in the world Jamaica I think is a melting pot of cultures people and traditions. Behind its beautiful exterior Jamaica has a dark and violent past, yet throughout the years it came to overcome the past. Present day Jamaica is a symbol for the fight for liberty and peace. Bibliography: www. wikipedia. org/jamaica/history/taino www. jamaica-guide. com/info jamaicans. com/articles/primearticles/taino. shtm iexplore. com/dmap/Jamaica/History www. religionfacts. com/a-z â€Å"Religia in istoria popoarelor lumii†-S. A. Tokarev www. cp-pc. ca/english/jamaica/arts. html www. history of ska. com scaruffi. com/history/reggae. html www. history of port royal. com www. rastafaris. com www. jamaicaisland. com/history/english period www. history of slavery. com /Caribbean/Jamaica Encyclopaedia Britannica/jamaica Encarta/history of jamaica

Driving While Black Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Driving While Black - Essay Example Recent well-publicized miscarriages of justice have caused embarrassment to the police, government and judiciary, and increased public concern about the quality of police functions (Weitzer, 1999). Similar misgivings are also felt about the expense and operation of the civil law system. A federal lawsuit United States v. Weaver has given police more freedom for racial profiling. Although, it stipulates certain patterns and norms when "blackness" can be regarded as "a signal" for that could be legitimately relied upon in the decision to approach and ultimately detain the suspect" Kennedy, 1999). Taking into account facts presented by Weitzer (1999) and Harris (1987), it is possible to say that use of "Driving While Black" may be regarded as quite reasonable under certain circumstances. These researchers underline that the main crime patterns that are deemphasized include murders, sex offenders and gang activity. These crime patterns are influenced by behavior patterns of black offenders and could be reduced in all groups mentioned above. Also, police intervention activities are directed against gang activity and drug dealing as "driven forces" to criminal behavior typical for black population. To be effective police should employ different range of activities and cover different groups of potential offenders, and black people represents a big group of suspects. In any case, it is important to emphasize that "blackness" is not regarded as "a signal" of criminal behavior. Studies found that: "Residents of both the white and the black middle-class neighborhoods were less likely to perceive or experience police abuse in their... Taking into account facts presented by Weitzer (1999) and Harris (1987), it is possible to say that use of â€Å"Driving While Black† may be regarded as quite reasonable under certain circumstances. These researchers underline that the main crime patterns that are deemphasized include murders, sex offenders and gang activity. These crime patterns are influenced by behavior patterns of black offenders and could be reduced in all groups mentioned above. Also, police intervention activities are directed against gang activity and drug dealing as â€Å"driven forces† to criminal behavior typical for black population. To be effective police should employ different range of activities and cover different groups of potential offenders, and black people represents a big group of suspects. In any case, it is important to emphasize that â€Å"blackness† is not regarded as â€Å"a signal† of criminal behavior. Studies found that: â€Å"Residents of both the white and the black middle-class neighborhoods were less likely to perceive or experience police abuse in their neighborhoods than were residents of the black lower-class neighborhood† (Weitzer, 1999). These facts show that class location is more important for police then racial differences and it is impossible to say about â€Å"blackness† as the only cause for illegal stops. On the other hand, rights are particularly difficult to operationalize in legal politics if the object of these rights is to protect indigenous identity. Since rights language is usually attached to the idea that individuals should be protected.

Enhancing Shareholder Value Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Enhancing Shareholder Value - Essay Example Another school of thought believes that dividends are adverse for the average shareholder as they attract taxes and cause fiscal disadvantages. Last but not the least the third group lauds large dividends as a positive signal to shareholders that all is well. So where does the modern shareholder value satisfaction stand in relation to dividend policies This is the one of the main issues which I will review in my paper below. Secondly my research is concerned with whether corporate governance is a mechanism to enhance shareholder wealth The fear of manager stockholder conflicts as being a threat to Shareholder wealth has been expressed by many academics as the quote below demonstrates, "The separation of ownership and control in a modern corporation often requires the delegation of significant decision-making authority to professional managers, which introduces the possibility that managers will have incentives to make decisions that benefit them at the expense of stockholders" (Byrd, Parrino and Pritsch, 1998). As this quote argues from the thesis by Byrd, Parrino and Pritsch, 1998 where the authors have argued that the separation of ownership and control in a modern corporate form will require the transfer of this responsibility to professional managers and this will introduce a stockholder-manager conflict with in the corporate structure. It has even been suggested that like most small investors, they would be likely to depend on free-rider benefits from the efforts of larger shareholders, who may have better expertise in corporate monitoring (Byrd, Parrino, & Pritsch,1998). My paper will defend the Berles and Means thesis and try to assess the truth in the statement given in the question. The modern corporate form finds itself dependant on the efficient allocation of resources by its agents of the funds which have been made available by the shareholders.The creation of new ventures and prudent investment becomes a focal aim of the established companies. This efficient allocation is dependant upon what the investors believe will be the returns as well as the trust that their company will be managed to maximize the investment and that the cash flows promised in exchange for the investment will effectively be returned.This trust will be established through a broad set of factors which will stem from the legal, institutional and regulatory environment that guarantees the investor protection.Accountability is the core concern that runs throughout the governance issues. Whether it is accountability of the management to the board, or the board to the shareholders, or even the employees to the employers, this is one issue that comes to fore whenever the subject is raised. Ac countability does not confine itself to financial matters alone. It covers the whole idea of responsibilities placed on a person, a group or even a department and the evaluation thereof to find out how these responsibilities were carried out or delivered. The third issue which I will deal briefly with is how corporate governance can enhance shareholder wealth and the role of the law

Unit VI Assessment#2 Particulate Matter Monitors Essay

Unit VI Assessment#2 Particulate Matter Monitors - Essay Example Working Principle: This monitor is an example of a high speed counter with a resolution of 1 count/liter. The monitor collects aerosols on a removable 47 mm Teflon filter allowing for future analysis. The particulate monitor can also analyze aerosols using 1.177 GRIMM Software program on a computer screen. The monitor has a random sampling head for collecting particles and leading them directly into an optical chamber that has a laser. The chamber counts each particle and classifies them by size. The concentration of the particles relates to the duration of collection. The monitor can also give results continuously up to one minute intervals (Peters, Ott, & Patrick, 2006).  Ã‚   Key Features:   The Model 1.108 can conduct real-time monitoring and the same times analyze the particles later. The monitor can measure particle size ranges from 0.30  µm to 20  µm and can auto zeros and self-diagnose itself. The monitor has software that is fully compatible with most Windows operating systems Peters, M., Ott, D., & Patrick, T. (2006). Comparison of the Grimm 1.108 and 1.109 Portable Aerosol Spectrometer to the TSI 3321 Aerodynamic Particle Sizer for Dry Partciles. Annals of Occupational Hygiene Advance Access ,

UK Legislation on Maritime Cultural Heritage

UK Legislation on Maritime Cultural Heritage How does current UK legislation define and value maritime Cultural heritage? Abstract The paper investigates UK maritime law with regards to its definition of maritime cultural heritage and the value placed upon this issue. Acts such as the 1973 Shipwrecks Act and the 1996 Treasure Act show that there are large gaps in UK maritime law and that the value placed upon maritime cultural heritage protection in the UK is lower than that placed upon commercial salvage concerns. In addition, international law has had little effect due to the UK rejection of the 2001 UNESCO Convention. Current events also show that the UK government is prepared to put commercial concerns before maritime cultural heritage protection. A survey is conducted to show the lack of knowledge in the UK regarding maritime law, but the desire from society for increased protection. Recommendations are made to scrap current legislation in order to put in new, unified legislation that offers blanket protection for wrecks. The proposal is similar to the current Swedish model of maritime cultural law. Historically, as one of the world’s foremost shipping and naval countries, Great Britain has a huge amount of maritime culture and heritage. In order to protect this heritage, there are a large number of laws in place. However, there is much discussion as to whether or not these laws adequately protect and value maritime cultural heritage above other concerns such as economics, politics, and land protection. The aim of this essay is to look at the current UK legislation and see how it defines and values maritime cultural heritage. This subject is important, because maritime cultural heritage is an important part of our society, and can give us a sense of pride in our nation’s achievements. Maritime cultural heritage is part of our national pride and identity – part of what it means to be English. With this in mind, it is important that this heritage is protected. The first section will consist of a literature review of UK maritime law and how it values maritime heritage. This will involve looking at a wide variety of government legislation from both the UK and worldwide law. The second section will continue a review of literature regarding how best to protect and guard maritime cultural heritage, and how these theories interplay with the law in practice. In order to gain an understanding of how the UK legislation compares to other maritime laws worldwide, there will be a comparison of UK law and policy with the policies of Australia and Sweden. These countries have been chosen along with the UK because of their significant maritime heritage. A news and views section will outline some of the recent issues and developments in maritime cultural heritage to show how legislation is currently being used in practice. This will include a look at the recent Spain vs. Odyssey conflict and its significance to the protection of maritime cultural heritage. The next section will include a survey so as to determine the public’s knowledge of current affairs within the UK regarding maritime cultural heritage. This will be a chance to understand the problems and advantages of maritime cultural heritage protection and law in today’s Britain. The penultimate section will outline recommendations on how, in light of the literature review findings and survey results, the current legislation could be changed to further protect maritime cultural heritage in the UK and worldwide. This may involve the changing of current laws or the creation of new laws with regards to maritime heritage protection. The last section will conclude all of the findings of the paper. Before the literature review begins, it is important to give a basic definition of what is meant by maritime cultural heritage, so that it can be understood what the protection of it means. This will also be useful to compare with how the UK and worldwide legislation defines maritime cultural heritage. One good definition of so-called ‘underwater cultural heritage’ is put forward by Sokal, who says that underwater cultural heritage: â€Å"†¦Refers to all remains of human activities lying on the seabed, on riverbeds, or at the bottom of lakes. It includes shipwrecks and other objects lost at sea, as well as prehistoric sites, sunken towns, and ancient ports that were once on the dry land and were eventually submerged due to climatic or geological changes.†[1] However, this does not fully cover maritime cultural heritage that has since been salvaged or put on display, as many of the most precious items have already. The reason for this is that it is generally understood that once artefacts are salvaged they are then governed under usual artefact and heritage law. The protection of the maritime heritage is to do with the maintenance and protection of relics that are underwater rather than those that have already been retrieved. [2] Although there is no standard definition of cultural heritage, many of the UN drafts and resolutions include terms such as â€Å"Objects of an archaeological and historical nature found at sea†. Although it is hard to fully decide what this should include, it is fairly clear that in the most basic sense underwater cultural heritage has to do with historical remains or evidence of human existence in any body of water around the world, particularly if that evidence is of cultural significance.[3] In the next section this definition can be compared to the definition of maritime cultural heritage put forward in UK legislation. The problem at present is that our maritime cultural heritage is protected by an assortment of UK legislations, none of which were specifically designed or created for the sole purpose of protecting and conserving our maritime cultural heritage. This means that only around sixty sites have been protected of an estimated thirty or forty thousand in the UK. This is because the laws are heavily value laden, and this diminishes any powers of protection offered. One of the earliest laws related to cultural heritage is the Ancient Monuments Act of 1882. This act was put in place so that ancient monuments could be ‘guarded’ or looked after by the people who own them, and also so that the government could potentially buy monuments that they felt needed better protection. Although this act sets a good early example in that it lists punishments for potential defacers of such monuments, there is a significant loophole. Anyone who owns such a monument but has not been given the title of ‘guardian’ of that monument is not liable to such punishments. This means that anyone who takes possession of or owns a piece of heritage or monument could in fact use it for commercial purposes or sell its valuable parts without punishment, so long as they had not been officially labeled as a guardian of the monument. This is significant because it is likely that anyone who was labeled a guardian would have been given this title because of their commitment to the monument. Those unlabelled owners would be perhaps more likely to deface or use the monument, yet could escape punishment for doing so.[4] Another problem with this act is that it does not specifically mention maritime cultural aterfacts as being monuments, and talks more about land-based monuments and their maintenance. Although the act was updated in 1979, it still retained the core problem of determining what ‘monuments’ were in fact Only those monuments listed on a ‘schedule’ were truly protected by this law, meaning that thousands of locations of maritime cultural heritage were left out and exposed to harm.[5] One of the next acts to be created with regards to maritime cultural heritage is the 1949 Coastal Protection Act. This act is concerned with the maintenance and protection of land that is being encroached upon by the sea, to stop valuable pieces of land being destroyed by coastal erosion. The way in which this act helps to protect underwater cultural heritage is that permission is required in tidal waters to dredge or remove objects. This means that underwater heritage sites cannot be touched without permission. However, it also means that any works for maintenance of these sites requires permission, and may be refused if this work interferes with navigational safety in any way. Also, the main point of this act is to stop land destruction, and the prohibition of removal of materials does not specifically mention cultural artefacts. It also says that removal of minerals more than fifty feet below the surface is allowed. The act also offers no protection to artefacts or wrecks in non-tidal or inland waters, as these are not considered part of the realm of ‘coastal protection’. Again, whilst the Coastal Protection Act does make it harder for some artefacts to be removed, it also has many flaws because the act is not targeting cultural heritage protection.[6] Perhaps the first real attempt to create a law that takes into account cultural heritage sites is the 1973 Protection of Wrecks Act. This act when combined with the Ancient Monuments Act has helped at least 15 wrecks to be protected in parts of Scotland.[7] It has in total protected around 60 wrecks under section 1 of the Act. This act is an improvement on the Ancient Monuments Act because it does need have the requirement of scheduling a monument. Rather, for a wreck to be protected it needs to be of historical, archaeological or artistic value. The problem here of course is defining this ‘value’, and this is why so many wrecks have been ignored. There is no specific definition of what constitutes this artistic, historical or archaeological value, and in fact 2 items on the original list of 60 have been removed. This law is helping to protect culturally significant wrecks, but with its vague definition of what this means there are countless other wrecks not being protected. Another problem is that with the correct licenses people are still allowed to regularly dive with these wrecks, although not take anything away. The problem here is that there is potential for damage or removal of objects without the knowledge of those charged with guarding the wrecks if anyone with a correct license can b e allowed access to the wreck.[8] Another issue is that whilst the act stops designated wrecks being unduly disturbed, it does not mention anything with regards to the maintenance of such wrecks and how they are to be preserved for future generations – an integral part of maritime cultural heritage. In 1986 there came the Protection of Military Remains Act. The primary goal of this act is to prevent disturbance of human remains that are still present in military aircraft or vessels. This is an act that applies both to UK and international waters, although vessels of foreign origin only count within UK waters. The act categories places as either ‘protected’, where diving is allowed with a license, or ‘controlled’, where no-one is allowed to visit. The historic significance of a site is one of the most important criteria when deciding if a site is eligible for protected or controlled status under the law. Although there are currently 16 vessels protected by this law in UK waters and at least 5 more in international waters as of 2001, the major loophole is obviously that the sites are only being protected whilst the human remains stay at these locations. Once these remains are gone then under this law the vessels will not be offered protection. Also, the definition of what constitutes historical significance is not clear.[9] The Merchant Shipping Act of 1995 is somewhat different, and is based upon the 1989 International Convention on Salvage. This Shipping law states that all items of wreck found in UK waters must be reported to the Receiver of Wreck – an official of the British government. Once reported the person who finds the wreck then has rights of salvage. These rights of salvage mean that once reported, the wreck is to be detained by the Receiver until a valuation is completed, at which time the individual(s) who salvaged the wreck will need to pay up to  £5,000 to release the wreck into their custody. The government can then hold the vessel until an owner is established. However, the problem with this legislation is again that it was not designed with the protection of maritime cultural heritage at its core. Although it means that all wrecks, no matter their significance are reported, it also means that if no owner comes forward or is found the person who found the wreck has rights to it once the salvage costs are paid. Although the Receiver has the rights to refuse this salvage right, this has been rarely carried out in the UK, if at all. Another factor is that the entire legislation is concerned with property ‘value’ in money terms rather than any cultural or historical significance. Whilst a wreck may appear of little monetary value, it may be of significant cultural or historical interest. This law only helps maritime cultural heritage in the sense that more wrecks need to be reported. However, it does not help wrecks from being removed or taken into possession by those who salvage them, whatever their intentions are for the wreck.[10] However, the Treasure Act of 1996 is a law created to deal with artefacts collected or found, and has more significance for maritime cultural heritage protection. This act creates a legal obligation for anyone who finds an object of ‘treasure’ as defined in the act to report it to their local coroner within fourteen days. The coroner will then determine whether or not the item constitutes treasure. If the item is seen as treasure then the person who found it must offer to sell it to a museum at a price set by an independent board of antiquities experts. If the item is found to not be treasure or the museum does not want to purchase it, then the finder may retain the object. In this law, the definition of treasure is generally set out to deal with items that are gold or silver of at least ten per cent and precious coins that are at least 300 years old. Items that are older than 200 years and are deemed by the State to be of historical or cultural value are also included. The problem with this is that any item outside of the usual scope of ‘treasure’ can only be classed as treasure through a special order. This sort of order may only be granted in circumstances where significant cultural value is identified. Another problem with this law is that it does not really preserve heritage directly. It demands that any treasure found be valued and that a museum have to pay the full price for such treasure. This means that for extremely valuable items it may be beyond the means of museums to purchase everything. This leaves maritime cultural heritage in the hands of people who may only be interested in the monetary value of an item and have no desire to preserve the item beyond this. However, most significantly the law focuses on metallic items of over 300 years old and any other culturally significant items of over 200 years old. This means items under 200 years old may not be protected, and the wrecks where the treasure is found may be damaged or discarded in favour of collecting the treasure itself. It must be said that this law, like the Merchant Shipping Act, does mean that more treasure and historical items are reported and discovered, allowing museums the opportunity to collect more material than might be possible otherwise. However, it does also encourage those who actively seek treasure of value, for they know a price will be set for it. More emphasis in the law should be put upon the cultural and historical significance of the item. The flipside of this is of course that people are more likely to report treasure knowing they will get money for it, rather than just keep it for themselves.[11] The most important of recent UK laws in this field though is the National Heritage Act of 2002, which is an update of the 1983 Act. This act is important because it includes UK heritage agencies in the protection of ancient monuments in or under the seabed within the territorial sea adjacent to England. Wales and Scotland have similar administrative responsibilities in their devolved administrations under Cadw and Historic Scotland respectively.[12] This is a welcome law as it enables English Heritage to take over responsibility for maritime cultural heritage protection from the Department of Culture, Media and Sport.[13] This means that the protection of monuments and promoting the public’s enjoyment and awareness of such monuments is all handled by one agency. Whilst there was obviously a transition period to move control from one agency to another, it has meant that archaeological sites from low water to the 12 nautical mile territorial limit around England are all dealt with by English Heritage.[14] Whilst this law is a step in the right direction by attempting to join up the laws governing maritime cultural heritage protection, the Acts themselves have too many gaps and too little direct focus on heritage protection to adequately protect our maritime cultural heritage. In addition to these UK laws however, cultural protection and heritage is governed by the UNESCO laws of 1972, 1981 and 2001. These laws have a significant influence on how cultural heritage is protected. The World Heritage Convention was adopted by UNESCO in 1972 and links nature conservation and preservation of cultural heritage. It helps to define the sort of sites that can be considered for the World Heritage List, and any country that signs the list pledges to protect not only their World Heritage Sites in their territory but their national heritage as a whole. By signing this list the UK has pledged to protect our national heritage, a large part of which is our maritime cultural heritage. However, it is the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention that really began to create a universal concept and law of maritime cultural protection. It is Articles 303 and 149 of this law that are of most interest. Article 303 says that ‘States have the duty to protect objects of an archaeological and historical nature found at sea and shall co-operate for this purpose’. [15] One problem with this part of the law is that it does not give any details of what these duties might involve. The law also says that it is not in contradiction or prejudice to any other international agreements on cultural protection, thus leaving the way open for future laws such as the 2001 convention. Article 149 says that: â€Å"all objects of an archaeological and historical nature found in the Area [that is, on the seabed underneath the high seas] shall be preserved or disposed of for the benefit of mankind as a whole, particular regard being paid to the preferential rights of the State or country of origin, or the State of cultural origin, or the State of historical and archaeological origin†. The problem with this is that the law is limited to the high seas, and there is a large gap between the high seas and the zones such as the contiguous zone closer to territorial waters.[16] As the most comprehensive of all the international maritime laws, it is a surprise that only two sections are linked to cultural protection. The problem is that these issues were only discussed at a late stage and the primary focus of the law is on fishing, the environment and trade. This law was ratified by 146 nations and came into effect in 1994. Of those nations that did not accept initially such as the USA, much of this was to do with deep seabed mining and other natural resource management concerns rather than with the issue of underwater cultural heritage – most likely because the Convention had so little in it about this topic.[17] However, it wasn’t long after this that new draft resolutions began to deal with the future of underwater cultural heritage, as it was felt that not enough was being done to deal with this issue. There was to be a look at cultural management, and these draft resolutions culminated in the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage.[18] This law was certainly needed, for the 1982 law was an ambiguous and rushed attempt to deal with underwater cultural heritage protection. The problem is that past 24 nautical miles there is little protection for cultural heritage in the 1982 law, and the protection of cultural heritage is then left up to the freedom of the open seas.[19] The 2001 Convention was adopted by 87 votes for to 4 against, with 15 abstentions. However, in these 15 abstentions were the UK, and at the time the US was not part of UNESCO and so could not vote. This immediately causes problems, as although the UK has adopted the 1989 Salvage Convention, they have not adopted the 2001 Underwater Cultural Heritage Convention. The reason for this is that the 2001 Convention actually attempts to provide blanket protection for all maritime cultural heritages, and the way in which State vessels and warships were to be protected was different to the plans of the UK. Britain has such a huge amount of wrecks that it has been felt that only those of the most significance should be focused on. If this Convention were signed then all wrecks of any historical or cultural significance would need to be protected. Britain believes that diverting resources to the most important wrecks and then educating people about maritime cultural heritage is more important. [20] However, this is not a view that the researcher ascribes to, as it seems extremely important that we preserve our entire maritime cultural heritage so that we may understand both the good and bad events that Britain has been a part of. Funding is obviously integral to this, and perhaps at this time it has not been possible for Britain to offer such large resources to the protection of all wrecks. Whilst this may be monetarily prudent, it may prove to be a costly mistake in the future as wrecks continue to be salvaged without consideration for the protection of cultural heritage. The law itself is having an effect on our cultural heritage protection though as the UK becomes increasingly pressured to meet the demands of this convention and give blanket protection to historical wrecks. The problem with this though is obviously providing resources to meet these demands, which may result in protection resources being spread too thin. Also, blanket protection of all wrecks may result in us being too nostalgic about certain aspects of our maritime cultural heritage, in particular the perspective our Britain’s associations with the sea during times of conflict. It is questionable as to whether significant amounts of money should be spent on protecting all historically significant wrecks, even if these wrecks were associated with darker activities and times in our history.[21] However, the 2001 convention doesn’t offer nearly as much protection as it first seems. The fact that there is a 100 year minimum time limit on artefacts excludes a lot of more recent wrecks that may be historically or culturally significant, such as the Titanic and wrecks from World War 1 and World War 2. This fact was made abundantly clear when the wreck of the Titanic was uncovered in 1985 and it became apparent that there was no way to protect it from salvage. With more advanced equipment today the problem is even greater, and anything under 100 years old is simply not adequately protected by the law. [22] Despite this, the law does have some good points. It aims at a universal plan of in situ preservation of wrecks, meaning they are less open to invasive procedures that would damage their condition and prevent us studying them in detail in the future. Another very important aspect of the Convention is in Article 4 which declares that the rules of salvage and finds will not be applicable to underwater cultural heritage. Although salvors do not obtain ownership rights, they gain the right to large compensation. This means that anything labeled as underwater cultural heritage cannot be sold commercially or traded. [23] Of course, the major problem with this law is its ineffectiveness unless more nations sign onto it. With the UK not accepting its terms it means that whilst the UNESCO Convention is good in principle, it cannot particularly influence UK law at this stage. The UK still looks to the Protection of Wrecks Act as the way to preserve cultural heritage. However, should more nations accept the Convention then this would surely be a major step towards further protecting the maritime cultural heritage of all countries. Just like the 1982 Convention, acceptance of this Convention would help reduce piracy and crime that damages maritime cultural heritage.[24] The problem with all of the laws in the UK and the rejection of the 2001 UNESCO Convention is that there is a lack of value placed upon maritime cultural heritage. The next section will briefly examine how, despite efforts to promote maritime cultural heritage protection, the UK laws still place little value on this concept above financial concerns and traditional property rights and salvage law. An example of how maritime law in the UK fails to focus on maritime cultural heritage preservation can be found in a study conducted by Mike Williams, a senior law studies lecturer at Wolverhampton University. Williams found that in places like the south-west of England, the rights to a wreck were based upon non-law conventions such as rights based on being able to see out to the distance that the wreck is from the shore. Although Williams show that Britain does know the importance of underwater cultural heritage and that is why it adopted the Valetta Convention, the Shipwrecks Act of 1973 has many flaws. It does not include protection for items that are not ships such as wrecks of Warplanes, and it stops people from having access to historical sites, which almost defeats the point of protecting them. The problem is that salvors can still claim possession of such historical wrecks, as seen by the 1990’s case of the Hanover, which was designated a wreck after discovery because it was supposed to carry gold. The salvors took the government to court and won the right to salvage. This shows the law is does not value cultural heritage as much as the traditional rights of salvage.[25] The fact is that when on land, historical artefacts are protected much better than those in the water. Although there have been a number of shipwrecks or maritime archaeological remains found on land, this is rare and the core of our maritime cultural heritage is beneath the water.[26] The problem can be seen in the cases where politicians get involved to try and protect wrecks or bring them to the attention of the public. This is necessary because the law itself, or at the very least the application of the law, is not focused on maritime cultural heritage. A case in 2002 was highlighted when Baroness Blackstone called for protection from the law for the 18th century warship the Bonhomme Richard. Although this wreck was eventually protected thanks to an urgent Designation Order under the Protection of Wrecks Act, it is only because of quick work by the Baroness that this occurred. The issue was that if salvors had got to the wreck first there was little the law could have done to prevent their rights of possession. If more value was placed upon cultural heritage protection in the law, then these temporary emergency measures would not be needed to protect important historical sites such as that of the Bonhomme Richard.[27] Another problem occurring in the UK system is that it is becoming increasingly difficult to find new and profitable uses for the port system. This means it is becoming harder to maintain these avenues of maritime cultural heritage, an example of which can be seen in the collapse of the coal ports in South Wales. The problem is that a balance between economic viability and cultural heritage is trying to be created. With architecturally important yards such as the Royal William Yard in Plymouth being left unused, it is becoming hard to see how economics can mix with cultural heritage. At the moment it seems that the force of economics is winning out. [28] The state of law at the moment is that cultural heritage is still put behind economic concerns of both salvors and the government. The law still favours salvors, and the government is unwilling to change laws to protect all wrecks because it would be too costly at this time. Therefore, by protecting a small number of high-profile wrecks it can be seen that something is being done. However, this is not enough and until these laws are changed it is clear that protection for maritime cultural heritage in the UK will remain inadequate.[29] To show how the UK maritime laws compare to other countries in terms of valuing cultural heritage, the next section will look at the legislation on maritime heritage in Sweden and Australia against that of the UK. Australian maritime law is perhaps more focused on maritime boundary zones than on preserving cultural heritage.[30] After ratifying the 1982 UNESCO Law of the Sea in 1994, they also put in a 200 nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone to help protect their interests around their complex shoreline.[31] However, this is not to say that Australian law doesn’t take into account maritime cultural heritage. The 2001 UNESCO Convention has had an effect on Australian law, although policies to protect cultural heritage in Australian waters have been in place for around 25 years. However, the problem in Australia is that only the Federal Government can help to initiate such changes as put forward by the Convention. This is difficult because it is the Territories who often put in practice many of the initiatives regarding cultural heritage protection. Despite this, in 2001 a promise to review the 1976 Commonwealth Historic Shipwrecks Act would be put in place, although this has taken some time to complete. The Historic Shipwrecks Act works very much like the UK Shipwrecks Act in that it protects historic shipwrecks rather than other relics. The review since the 2001 UNESCO Convention would aim to change this so that all historical artefacts would be preserved. However, like the UK there is opposition to this from salvors as well as divers, with Australia being particularly popular with wreck divers. They believe that new laws would limit the access to wrecks for the general public. In truth, these ‘concerned’

Howards End by E. M. Forster Essay -- Howards Howard End EM Forster E

Howard's End by E. M. Forster Howards End by E. M. Forster deals with the conflict of class distinctions and human relationships. The quintessence of the main theme of this lovely novel is: "Only connect!†¦Only connect the prose and passion†¦and human love will be seen at its height. Live in fragments no longer." This excerpt represents the main idea that Forster carries through the book: relationships, not social status, are--or at least should be--the most important thing for people.Howards End was written in 1910. That explains the naivete and idealism that permeate the atmosphere of the novel. Written in the beginning of the twentieth century in England about the beginning of the twentieth century in England it reflects the mood that existed in England at that time. It was a time of prosperity. The industrial revolution that started in the previous century made the British Empire a world power. Everyone had a job and the conditions for the workers significantly improved as compared to the past century. Trade unions that never existed before had just begun to form to protect the rights of the working people, and poor children didn't have to work in mines anymore. A bloody and seemingly meaningless war hadn't yet begun to destroy bodies and devastate souls of people. Generally speaking, the times were good, and the future was viewed in an optimistic way. The atmosphere of the book is filled with romance and hope, even though the author is very far from writing an utopian type of description of English society.In fact, the book is very truthful in the description of class problems of the country. In Howards End Forster talks about two classes and two ideologies that are separated by the thick wall of social prejudices and misunderstandings. The two social groups are represented by the cultured, idealistic Schlegels and the pragmatic, business-oriented Wilcoxes. The Schlegel Sisters, who aren't 'pure' English, but people of German origin, personify Forster's dream about what people's philosophy of life should be. They used to think about the class differences as obstacles that do not allow people to fully understand each other. The hope is that if everybody thinks that way, people will just forget about class differences--that's what Forster's dream is. Margaret and Helen Schlegels partly think this way because being part of minority group i... ...ccur. Unfortunately, there was nothing in English society at the beginning of the twentieth century that could have given a hope of such an ending, and there is not too much now.But who cares?We have to be optimistic sometimes and hope for a better future. Too much of Hemingway's "things end badly" approach will make us all sick, tired, incorrigible pessimists. We need novels, movies, cartoons that end happily to bring some hope to our world where--Hemingway was right--too many things end too badly. This lovely and romantic book is worth reading, for it's an excellent candy in the world of our bitter reality. The idea of being comrades and 'only connecting' suits any place in the world at any time. Why not follow it, why not pay attention to personality only instead of making a big fuss about a person's social status or the amount of money an individual has? This book is too romantic, but the ability of being romantic is, after all, our strength. Who knows, maybe things that seem too idealistic to us today will become the fundamental society principles tomorrow. Who knows, maybe in the future people all over the world will "only connect" and be happy. At least, one may hope.